Non-Violence

With the simultaneous proliferation of technology and global-poltical danger in the modern world, strategies for countering both political oppression, and the outbreak of political violence and war are urgently needed.   Although the century which has recently slipped away — the Twentieth Century — may be remembered as â€Å"the bloodiest in history† (Martin 625), with hundreds of millions of people killed in wars and with weapons of mass destruction being â€Å"invented, built, deployed and further refined† (Martin 625) during the same century when state-sponsored genocide and terrorism became commonly known quantities.Against this backdrop of chaos, war, and an increasingly dangerous technological landscape, the philosophy of non-violence, or passive resistance, gained   an historical currency which is still unmatched. The activities of important leaders like Gandhi, King, and Mandela revealed the truly earth-changing, paradigm shifting   potential of non-violence resistance as a method for seizing social initiative and political power.Because of the actions of these three important leaders. plus a host of other lesser-known figures, and the action of millions of ordinary activists, â€Å"it can be argued that the rise of nonviolent action was one of the most important developments of the century†Ã‚   (Martin 625), and one which has tremendous potential for application in today's difficult and complex political world.While it is true enough that Gandhi, King, and Mandela over similar models of non-violent leadership and that key tenants of what might be termed a â€Å"universal† sense of non-violence pervade each leaders' philosophies, distinct differences are also recognizable   when a comparison of the three leaders' ideas, activities, and accomplishments is carried out. Such a study of similarities and differences in the philosophies and actions of these important leaders is crucial to understanding how the philosophy of non-violence may be applied in modern times as an antidote to the dangerous and oppressive climate that threatens much of the world.As noted, â€Å"Nonviolent action — including methods such as rallies, strikes, boycotts and sit-ins — has become increasingly important in the past century as a method for waging conflict and promoting social change† (Martin 625) and due to the urgent pressure caused by modern political and social challenges such as terrorism, global warming, the protection of human rights and religious freedom, adapting past approaches of non-violent action to present-day challenges may be beneficial.Non-violent activism may, in fact, help bring about important social changes: â€Å"Some areas for future expansion of the role of nonviolent action include replacing military defence, technological design, challenging capitalism, bureaucratic politics, information struggles and interpersonal behaviour† (Martin 625); the suggesti on of non-violence as an all-pervading philosophy applicable throughout the full strata of political and social issues may sound grandiose, but as we will see, this idea is actually a core-concept for the three leaders in our study.In this regard, non-violent philosophy takes it roots not in social, political or philosophical idea, but in spiritual convictions or even, spiritual revelation. An abstraction of  Ã‚   â€Å"nonviolence principles, building on the core dynamic of political jiu-jitsu in contexts where the opponent does not use physical force† (Martin 625) may be the best way to intuitively understand that non-violence does not indicate non-action of total passivity in the face of aggression. Such a distinction is difficult to pin down, but it is a crucial part of activism, manifest in the breaking of â€Å"unjust† laws, and passive resistant behaviors which, if not violent, certainly imply action by the participants.In order to shed light on some of the mo re challenging aspects of non-violent activism, such as the spiritual aspect, as well as investigate the potential application of non-violent philosophy in modern times, the following brief examination of non-violent philosophy according to each leader: Gandhi, King, and Mandela, will attempt to sketch a general idea of the similarities and differences of each leader's approach and attempt to discover if any type of universal vision of non-violent philosophy can be discovered.GANDHIFor Gandhi, non-violence arises out of an organic human impulse or † basic law of our being† (Gandhi, and Merton 23); such a conviction, foe Gandhi, is based not in genetic or biological assumptions or evidence or in logistical philosophical reasoning, but in spiritual ideas. For Gandhi, â€Å"Ahimsa (non-violence)†Ã‚   (Gandhi, and Merton 23) is the opposite of   â€Å"himsa (violence)†Ã‚   (Gandhi, and Merton 23), and the attributes of each energy are just as distinct. While Ahimsa â€Å"can be used as the most effective principle for social action, since it is in deep accord with the truth of man's nature and corresponds to his innate desire for peace, justice, order, freedom, and personal dignity† (Gandhi, and Merton 23), its opposite energy, himsa, â€Å"degrades and corrupts man† (Gandhi, and Merton 23); therefore to bring himsa energy against himsa energy would be to fight fire with fire.By contrast, the application of ahimsa or non-violent energy to the problem of himsa energy â€Å"heals and restores man's nature, while giving him a means to restore social order and justice† (Gandhi, and Merton 23). The important thing to remember here is that, for Gandhi, ahimsa and himsa energies are not metaphorical reflections or abstract concepts, they are living, spiritual realities.   Although the capacity for ahimsa resides in each person, modern society has left humanity with a much more desperate and disordered reliance on himsa e nergy.For Gandhi such an alienation of man's true capacities has resulted in a culture where â€Å"violence seems to be the very foundation of social order and is â€Å"enthroned as if it were an eternal law,† so that man is called upon by society to reject love† (Gandhi, and Merton 43) and instead embrace a social reality which is enforced by violence or by the threat of violence.To meet this himsa-driven society with ahimsa energy adn non-violence requires supreme courage on behalf of the activist. This extraordinary courage, according to Gandhi, is derived from God:This courage demands nothing short of the ability to face death with complete   Ã‚   fearlessness and to suffer without retaliation. Such a program is meaningless and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   impossible, Gandhi thinks, without belief in God.  (Gandhi, and Merton 43)The implication in Gandhi's ideas is that the activist or the â€Å"Satyagrahi† is enabled, in fact: bound, by God to break the laws of man when they are unjust. The decision as to how it is determined that a law is unjust is murky and unclear, as we will see: this same ambiguity marks both King and Mandela's own approach to non-violent activism. The historical truth is that Gandhi made clear that each â€Å"Satyagrahi was bound to resist all those laws which he considered to be unjust and which were not of a criminal character, in order to bend the Government to the will of the people† (Gandhi 21) and it is this kind of â€Å"twisting† which comprises the active aspect of non-violent activism.KINGThe expression of non-violent activism by King relied as much on spiritual conviction as that of Gandhi. This conviction brought about a similar adherence to   the concept of breaking â€Å"unjust† laws as a method of civil disobedience. King, like Gandhi, found justification for the breaking of social laws by the invocation of Divine Power. The result was that King experienced some difficulty in ma king his racial and social activism truly universal, although such a desire to do so formed an underlying precept of his overall strategy for social and political change.In a rather unique twist of philosophy, King opted to not only resist unjust laws non-violently, but tor each out to his so-called opponents: white racists with language of reconciliation, good-will, and fellowship. King's invocations of â€Å"the good to be achieved† (Wolf, and Rosen) were powerful   counterparts to his criticisms of the social conditions he sought to transform.Since King's goal was to â€Å"to bring the Negro into the mainstream of American life as quickly as possible† (Wolf, and Rosen) his reliance on civil disobedience and the breaking of unjust laws by Divine justification, like Gandhi's, requires a deeper examination. Such revelation is possible due to King's extensive writings; in particular his â€Å"Letter From a Birmingham Jail† a famous document where he addresses t he concern of his fellow clergymen regarding the breaking of laws by civil activists.The letter repeatedly appeals to a shared sense of religion; King also cites Biblical examples to bolster his argument.  Ã‚   Responding to the criticism that his actions and the actions of his followers, even though non-violent in practice, ultimately resulted in violence on the behalf of the white Southerners who beat and jailed the protestor (and sometimes lynched or otherwise killed African Americans), King compared the fight for civil rights with the fight of Jesus to spread the gospel.King's appeal via religion and spirituality was based in a desire for unity and understanding. While he denied accusations of extremity or of inciting violence, he admitted that the impulse for civil rights was, by his reckoning, the will   of God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   King advises that the will of all people is toward freedom and equality.   â€Å"Oppressed people cannot remain oppressed forever. The yearning for freedom eventually manifests itself, and that is what has happened to the American Negro.† (King)By forwarding the notion that civil rights are an inevitable outgrowth of both God's will and the flow of history, King is, in effect, offering a justification for his tactics and philosophies regarding civil rights.The justification for the elements of passive resistance which had led to violent confrontation is also based in King's ideas of justice. King's idea is that God's law is the highest law and that man's laws may be broken when they obviously disagree with or even insult God's law.With the belief that God's Law is the highest law and that history shows that all people will struggle for freedom and liberty, and by appealing to the rational sense of justice and the emotional and spiritual senses of brotherhood and love, King attains justification for his actions but does not seek to evade or subvert laws outright.MANDELAUnlike King, Mandela called for delib erate confrontation with the forces of apartheid which apposed his view of liberation and freedom. Although he repeatedly expressed his opinion that he was not, in fact, a racist himself, Mandela's rhetoric unlike King and Gandhi's, â€Å"was more polarizing† (Wolf, and Rosen); for example, Mandela never attempted â€Å"to appeal to whites† and he sought by confrontational rhetoric coupled with non-violent activism to † through greater polarization to galvanize the situation to crisis levels, thereby compelling action by the international community† (Wolf, and Rosen) which in itself presents a divergence in thought from Gandhi and King both of whom sough reconciliation with their enemies.However, rhetoric was simply another tool in Mandela's non-violent philosophical approach. When, at key moments, he might have called for violence, in actuality, he strove for non-violent change. he might have â€Å"easily have called for a violent overthrow of the South A frican government upon his release after 27 years in prison† (Pierce 1) but rather than do so, he advocated non-violent resistance.The idea of appealing to the world community adds another dimension to the non-violent approach of activism. For Mandela, â€Å"In this scenario, â€Å"the international community† becomes subrogated to the role of â€Å"broader constituency† that Mandela evoked indirectly†Ã‚   (Wolf, and Rosen) but whose support and intervention proved crucial to his success. Because of his sometimes volatile rhetoric, Mandela took special care to â€Å"emphasize his desire for reconciliation across the divide of colour† and repeatedly â€Å"pledged himself anew to work for a multiracial society in which all would have a secure place† (Pierce 175).Contemporary Impact of Non-Violent StrategiesDespite the contributions of great thinkers and activists like those examined in the preceding, brief discussion, the fact is contemporary s ociety seems no less preoccupied with violence than ever before. By examining the media one has the distinct impression that in the world of media and media-related technology, a great deal of concern has been expressed by both everyday observers and specialists in social-psychology over the possible negative impacts that media, and in particular media portrayals of violence, may have upon small children and adolescent children.One of the most complex facets of the issue is the still-unknown impact that new technologies such as 24 hour a day cable programming, widespread Internet access, and the â€Å"digital age† in general will have on the generation of young people who are presently the first to be so overwhelmed by such widespread media and media technologies.An immersive and nearly all-pervading sense of media exists in modern homes that, in fact, the presence of media can be said to form a basis of â€Å"reality† for many people. It is this exact kind of blurred distinction between perceived reality (based on media models and information) and reality (those aspects of life which stand apart from media and media-based models).The distinction between media-reality and reality is not always clear, particularly to small children and adolescent children: â€Å"The boundaries between reality and unreality are especially permeable for small children. They are unable, through at least the age of three or four, to distinguish fact from fantasy. Even older children rarely manage to keep â€Å"real life† and vicarious experience in watertight compartments† (Bok 1999, 38) as we will see in the following discussion.The main impact repeated viewings of media violence seems to exert over small children and adolescents is the conflation of media-violence with organic psychological processes, many of which exist at such a deep, primitive psychological level in humans that manipulation of these emotions, and psychological dispositions remains, for the most part, beyond the conscious perception of the viewer. In conclusion, although the idea of media-responsibility regarding the impact of violent programming on children and young adults is often cited by critics as a form of censorship, ample scientific evidence and research exists to establish media-violence as a certain source of negative influence on young people.The fact of the matter remains despite the right of free speech that media-reality and actual reality are non-distinct at some deep, organic level in human psychology: † weeks earlier the Los Angeles police officers whose roadside beating of motorist Rodney King had been shown on TV screens the world over had been acquitted by an all-white jury[†¦]In that crisis, the boundaries between movies and reality blurred, not only for the public but also for Hollywood producers, directors, and actors who were seeing smoke rising beneath their hillside residences and hearing sirens echo up and down the canyons ,† (Bok 1999, 36); with such a confusing and agitating impact of adult professionals, what can we expect when we expose our children to the same cultural ambiguities through media?If non-violent philosophy according to Gandhi, king, and Mandela is correct then violence is not   a norm in human society, but a constructed evil. If, as the proponents of non-violent philosophy suggest, â€Å"non-violent settlement of conflict is the human norm as we well know from daily experience. We are not programmed in some genetic way to violence† (Kent) than a radical re-visioning of our self-identity and self-image as human beings must take place not only in our media and in our educational facilities, but in our individual psyches as well.The applications of non-violent strategies in contemporary culture can be thought of as being as unknown as the implications of deep-space travel because even though the contributions of such historical leaders as Gandhi, King, and Mandela reveal s the tremendous power of non-violent activism, the full impact of the philosophy as articulated by these men has far-reaching cultural, global-poltical, and spiritual implications which surpass anything which has yet occurred in history.In other words, the â€Å"pioneers† of the â€Å"modern† incarnation of non-violent strategy which we have examined: Gandhi, King, and Mandela represent not the totality of what the non-violent philosophy can or wants to attain, but the mere beginning of a global transformation which is rooted not inly in the basic moral nature of humanity, but in humanity's spiritual destiny and responsibility.Certainly individual leaders and activists continue to utilize the non-violent approach to attain important results in their areas of influence. Modern technology can also help individual activists to promote change by spreading honest information regarding the repercussions of violence and the militarization of political issues. One recent exam ple is when â€Å"a 1991 massacre in the East Timorese capital Dill was recorded on videotape and subsequently broadcast worldwide, this generated enormous support for the resistance† (Martin 625); such applications of technology by individuals represent one small but important aspect of the many avenues of potential non-violent methods of change.Other methods include educational strategies based in the ideas forwarded by Gandhi, King, and Mandela. The recognition of the historical impact of the immensely influential strategies of non-violent change and civil disobedience will also help to inform and empower individuals who, in turn, may adopt some of the strategies and ideas reflected upon in the above discussion to help bring about social and political change through non-violent means.ConclusionThe examination of three important world-leaders who based their activism in non-violent philosophy reveals certain universal traits among the different incarnations of non-violent a ctivism. Among these universal traits is a belief in the breaking of â€Å"unjust† laws for the purpose of bringing about social and political change. This belief is often, if not always, accompanied by an ambiguous but firmly articulated that such a braking of laws is based in Divine Will. Another core belief seems to be that non-violence rather than violence is, in fact, more in keeping with humanity's organic nature. This idea often results in a corresponding belief that the violence evident in human society is the result of a kind of perversion of humanity's natural attributes into an unnatural and unhealthy state.Against this backdrop, it is very difficult if not impossible to envision the philosophies of non-violent activism as we know them today as anything short of a religious and spiritual philosophy with extremely pragmatic roots in social and political activism. Not only is the spiritual aspect of non-violent philosophy seemingly universal in the three historical f igures studied in this short discussion, but the attributes of spirituality embraced by non-violent activists are, in themselves, of great and abiding interest to any observer. A discussion of this aspect alone would probably reveal that the philosophy of non-violence has existed as a spiritual conviction at various times in various cultures throughout the entire history of humanity.Works CitedBarker, Martin and Julian Petley, eds. 2001. Ill Effects: The Media/Violence Debate. New York:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Routledge.Bok, Sissela. 1999. Mayhem Violence as Public Entertainment. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.Gandhi, M. K. Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha). New York: Schocken Books, 1961.Gandhi, Mahatma, and Thomas Merton. Gandhi on Non-Violence. New York: New Directions   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pub, 1965.Kent, Bruce. â€Å"Non-Violence: The History of a Dangerous Idea.† History Today Feb. 2007: 62+.Mandela, Tambo, and the African National Congress The Struggle against Apartheid, 1948-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1990. Ed. Sheridan Johns and R. Hunt Davis. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.Martin, Brian. â€Å"Nonviolent Futures.† Futures 33.7 (2001): 625.Pierce, Victoria. â€Å"A Tribute to Dr. King Civil Rights Leader's Legacy of Non- Violence Is Alive   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   around the World.† Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, IL) 29 Sept. 2006: 1.Wolf, Charles, and Brian Rosen. â€Å"Public Diplomacy: Lessons from King and Mandela.† Policy Review (2005): 63+. Non-Violence With the simultaneous proliferation of technology and global-poltical danger in the modern world, strategies for countering both political oppression, and the outbreak of political violence and war are urgently needed.   Although the century which has recently slipped away — the Twentieth Century — may be remembered as â€Å"the bloodiest in history† (Martin 625), with hundreds of millions of people killed in wars and with weapons of mass destruction being â€Å"invented, built, deployed and further refined† (Martin 625) during the same century when state-sponsored genocide and terrorism became commonly known quantities.Against this backdrop of chaos, war, and an increasingly dangerous technological landscape, the philosophy of non-violence, or passive resistance, gained   an historical currency which is still unmatched. The activities of important leaders like Gandhi, King, and Mandela revealed the truly earth-changing, paradigm shifting   potential of non-violence resistance as a method for seizing social initiative and political power. Because of the actions of these three important leaders. plus a host of other lesser-known figures, and the action of millions of ordinary activists, â€Å"it can be argued that the rise of nonviolent action was one of the most important developments of the century†Ã‚   (Martin 625), and one which has tremendous potential for application in today's difficult and complex political world.While it is true enough that Gandhi, King, and Mandela over similar models of non-violent leadership and that key tenants of what might be termed a â€Å"universal† sense of non-violence pervade each leaders' philosophies, distinct differences are also recognizable   when a comparison of the three leaders' ideas, activities, and accomplishments is carried out. Such a study of similarities and differences in the philosophies and actions of these important leaders is crucial to understanding how th e philosophy of non-violence may be applied in modern times as an antidote to the dangerous and oppressive climate that threatens much of the world. As noted, â€Å"Nonviolent action — including methods such as rallies, strikes, boycotts and sit-ins — has become increasingly important in the past century as a method for waging conflict and promoting social change† (Martin 625) and due to the urgent pressure caused by modern political and social challenges such as terrorism, global warming, the protection of human rights and religious freedom, adapting past approaches of non-violent action to present-day challenges may be beneficial.Non-violent activism may, in fact, help bring about important social changes: â€Å"Some areas for future expansion of the role of nonviolent action include replacing military defence, technological design, challenging capitalism, bureaucratic politics, information struggles and interpersonal behaviour† (Martin 625); the sugges tion of non-violence as an all-pervading philosophy applicable throughout the full strata of political and social issues may sound grandiose, but as we will see, this idea is actually a core-concept for the three leaders in our study.In this regard, non-violent philosophy takes it roots not in social, political or philosophical idea, but in spiritual convictions or even, spiritual revelation. An abstraction of  Ã‚   â€Å"nonviolence principles, building on the core dynamic of political jiu-jitsu in contexts where the opponent does not use physical force† (Martin 625) may be the best way to intuitively understand that non-violence does not indicate non-action of total passivity in the face of aggression. Such a distinction is difficult to pin down, but it is a crucial part of activism, manifest in the breaking of â€Å"unjust† laws, and passive resistant behaviors which, if not violent, certainly imply action by the participants.In order to shed light on some of the more challenging aspects of non-violent activism, such as the spiritual aspect, as well as investigate the potential application of non-violent philosophy in modern times, the following brief examination of non-violent philosophy according to each leader: Gandhi, King, and Mandela, will attempt to sketch a general idea of the similarities and differences of each leader's approach and attempt to discover if any type of universal vision of non-violent philosophy can be discovered.For Gandhi, non-violence arises out of an organic human impulse or † basic law of our being† (Gandhi, and Merton 23); such a conviction, foe Gandhi, is based not in genetic or biological assumptions or evidence or in logistical philosophical reasoning, but in spiritual ideas. For Gandhi, â€Å"Ahimsa (non-violence)†Ã‚   (Gandhi, and Merton 23) is the opposite of   â€Å"himsa (violence)†Ã‚   (Gandhi, and Merton 23), and the attributes of each energy are just as distinct. While Ahim sa â€Å"can be used as the most effective principle for social action, since it is in deep accord with the truth of man's nature and corresponds to his innate desire for peace, justice, order, freedom, and personal dignity† (Gandhi, and Merton 23), its opposite energy, himsa, â€Å"degrades and corrupts man† (Gandhi, and Merton 23); therefore to bring himsa energy against himsa energy would be to fight fire with fire.By contrast, the application of ahimsa or non-violent energy to the problem of himsa energy â€Å"heals and restores man's nature, while giving him a means to restore social order and justice† (Gandhi, and Merton 23). The important thing to remember here is that, for Gandhi, ahimsa and himsa energies are not metaphorical reflections or abstract concepts, they are living, spiritual realities.   Although the capacity for ahimsa resides in each person, modern society has left humanity with a much more desperate and disordered reliance on himsa energ y. For Gandhi such an alienation of man's true capacities has resulted in a culture where â€Å"violence seems to be the very foundation of social order and is â€Å"enthroned as if it were an eternal law,† so that man is called upon by society to reject love† (Gandhi, and Merton 43) and instead embrace a social reality which is enforced by violence or by the threat of violence.To meet this himsa-driven society with ahimsa energy adn non-violence requires supreme courage on behalf of the activist. This extraordinary courage, according to Gandhi, is derived from God:This courage demands nothing short of the ability to face death with complete fearlessness and to suffer without retaliation. Such a program is meaningless and impossible, Gandhi thinks, without belief in God.The implication in Gandhi's ideas is that the activist or the â€Å"Satyagrahi† is enabled, in fact: bound, by God to break the laws of man when they are unjust. The decision as to how it is dete rmined that a law is unjust is murky and unclear, as we will see: this same ambiguity marks both King and Mandela's own approach to non-violent activism. The historical truth is that Gandhi made clear that each â€Å"Satyagrahi was bound to resist all those laws which he considered to be unjust and which were not of a criminal character, in order to bend the Government to the will of the people† (Gandhi 21) and it is this kind of â€Å"twisting† which comprises the active aspect of non-violent activism.The expression of non-violent activism by King relied as much on spiritual conviction as that of Gandhi. This conviction brought about a similar adherence to   the concept of breaking â€Å"unjust† laws as a method of civil disobedience. King, like Gandhi, found justification for the breaking of social laws by the invocation of Divine Power. The result was that King experienced some difficulty in making his racial and social activism truly universal, although su ch a desire to do so formed an underlying precept of his overall strategy for social and political change. In a rather unique twist of philosophy, King opted to not only resist unjust laws non-violently, but tor each out to his so-called opponents: white racists with language of reconciliation, good-will, and fellowship. King's invocations of â€Å"the good to be achieved† (Wolf, and Rosen) were powerful   counterparts to his criticisms of the social conditions he sought to transform.Since King's goal was to â€Å"to bring the Negro into the mainstream of American life as quickly as possible† (Wolf, and Rosen) his reliance on civil disobedience and the breaking of unjust laws by Divine justification, like Gandhi's, requires a deeper examination. Such revelation is possible due to King's extensive writings; in particular his â€Å"Letter From a Birmingham Jail† a famous document where he addresses the concern of his fellow clergymen regarding the breaking of la ws by civil activists. The letter repeatedly appeals to a shared sense of religion; King also cites Biblical examples to bolster his argument.  Ã‚   Responding to the criticism that his actions and the actions of his followers, even though non-violent in practice, ultimately resulted in violence on the behalf of the white Southerners who beat and jailed the protestor (and sometimes lynched or otherwise killed African Americans), King compared the fight for civil rights with the fight of Jesus to spread the gospel.King's appeal via religion and spirituality was based in a desire for unity and understanding. While he denied accusations of extremity or of inciting violence, he admitted that the impulse for civil rights was, by his reckoning, the will   of God.   Ã‚   King advises that the will of all people is toward freedom and equality.   â€Å"Oppressed people cannot remain oppressed forever. The yearning for freedom eventually manifests itself, and that is what has happene d to the American Negro.† (King) By forwarding the notion that civil rights are an inevitable outgrowth of both God's will and the flow of history, King is, in effect, offering a justification for his tactics and philosophies regarding civil rights.The justification for the elements of passive resistance which had led to violent confrontation is also based in King's ideas of justice. King's idea is that God's law is the highest law and that man's laws may be broken when they obviously disagree with or even insult God's law.With the belief that God's Law is the highest law and that history shows that all people will struggle for freedom and liberty, and by appealing to the rational sense of justice and the emotional and spiritual senses of brotherhood and love, King attains justification for his actions but does not seek to evade or subvert laws outright.Unlike King, Mandela called for deliberate confrontation with the forces of apartheid which apposed his view of liberation an d freedom. Although he repeatedly expressed his opinion that he was not, in fact, a racist himself, Mandela's rhetoric unlike King and Gandhi's, â€Å"was more polarizing† (Wolf, and Rosen); for example, Mandela never attempted â€Å"to appeal to whites† and he sought by confrontational rhetoric coupled with non-violent activism to † through greater polarization to galvanize the situation to crisis levels, thereby compelling action by the international community† (Wolf, and Rosen) which in itself presents a divergence in thought from Gandhi and King both of whom sough reconciliation with their enemies.However, rhetoric was simply another tool in Mandela's non-violent philosophical approach. When, at key moments, he might have called for violence, in actuality, he strove for non-violent change. he might have â€Å"easily have called for a violent overthrow of the South African government upon his release after 27 years in prison† (Pierce 1) but rather than do so, he advocated non-violent resistance. The idea of appealing to the world community adds another dimension to the non-violent approach of activism. For Mandela, â€Å"In this scenario, â€Å"the international community† becomes subrogated to the role of â€Å"broader constituency† that Mandela evoked indirectly†Ã‚   (Wolf, and Rosen) but whose support and intervention proved crucial to his success. Because of his sometimes volatile rhetoric, Mandela took special care to â€Å"emphasize his desire for reconciliation across the divide of colour† and repeatedly â€Å"pledged himself anew to work for a multiracial society in which all would have a secure place† (Pierce 175).Contemporary Impact of Non-Violent StrategiesDespite the contributions of great thinkers and activists like those examined in the preceding, brief discussion, the fact is contemporary society seems no less preoccupied with violence than ever before. By examining the media one has the distinct impression that in the world of media and media-related technology, a great deal of concern has been expressed by both everyday observers and specialists in social-psychology over the possible negative impacts that media, and in particular media portrayals of violence, may have upon small children and adolescent children. One of the most complex facets of the issue is the still-unknown impact that new technologies such as 24 hour a day cable programming, widespread Internet access, and the â€Å"digital age† in general will have on the generation of young people who are presently the first to be so overwhelmed by such widespread media and media technologies.An immersive and nearly all-pervading sense of media exists in modern homes that, in fact, the presence of media can be said to form a basis of â€Å"reality† for many people. It is this exact kind of blurred distinction between perceived reality (based on media models and information) and real ity (those aspects of life which stand apart from media and media-based models).   The distinction between media-reality and reality is not always clear, particularly to small children and adolescent children: â€Å"The boundaries between reality and unreality are especially permeable for small children. They are unable, through at least the age of three or four, to distinguish fact from fantasy. Even older children rarely manage to keep â€Å"real life† and vicarious experience in watertight compartments† (Bok 1999, 38) as we will see in the following discussion.The main impact repeated viewings of media violence seems to exert over small children and adolescents is the conflation of media-violence with organic psychological processes, many of which exist at such a deep, primitive psychological level in humans that manipulation of these emotions, and psychological dispositions remains, for the most part, beyond the conscious perception of the viewer. In conclusion, although the idea of media-responsibility regarding the impact of violent programming on children and young adults is often cited by critics as a form of censorship, ample scientific evidence and research exists to establish media-violence as a certain source of negative influence on young people.The fact of the matter remains despite the right of free speech that media-reality and actual reality are non-distinct at some deep, organic level in human psychology: † weeks earlier the Los Angeles police officers whose roadside beating of motorist Rodney King had been shown on TV screens the world over had been acquitted by an all-white jury[†¦]In that crisis, the boundaries between movies and reality blurred, not only for the public but also for Hollywood producers, directors, and actors who were seeing smoke rising beneath their hillside residences and hearing sirens echo up and down the canyons,† (Bok 1999, 36); with such a confusing and agitating impact of adult prof essionals, what can we expect when we expose our children to the same cultural ambiguities through media?If non-violent philosophy according to Gandhi, king, and Mandela is correct then violence is not   a norm in human society, but a constructed evil. If, as the proponents of non-violent philosophy suggest, â€Å"non-violent settlement of conflict is the human norm as we well know from daily experience. We are not programmed in some genetic way to violence† (Kent) than a radical re-visioning of our self-identity and self-image as human beings must take place not only in our media and in our educational facilities, but in our individual psyches as well.The applications of non-violent strategies in contemporary culture can be thought of as being as unknown as the implications of deep-space travel because even though the contributions of such historical leaders as Gandhi, King, and Mandela reveals the tremendous power of non-violent activism, the full impact of the philosophy as articulated by these men has far-reaching cultural, global-poltical, and spiritual implications which surpass anything which has yet occurred in history.   In other words, the â€Å"pioneers† of the â€Å"modern† incarnation of non-violent strategy which we have examined: Gandhi, King, and Mandela represent not the totality of what the non-violent philosophy can or wants to attain, but the mere beginning of a global transformation which is rooted not inly in the basic moral nature of humanity, but in humanity's spiritual destiny and responsibility.Certainly individual leaders and activists continue to utilize the non-violent approach to attain important results in their areas of influence. Modern technology can also help individual activists to promote change by spreading honest information regarding the repercussions of violence and the militarization of political issues. One recent example is when â€Å"a 1991 massacre in the East Timorese capital Dill was rec orded on videotape and subsequently broadcast worldwide, this generated enormous support for the resistance† (Martin 625); such applications of technology by individuals represent one small but important aspect of the many avenues of potential non-violent methods of change.Other methods include educational strategies based in the ideas forwarded by Gandhi, King, and Mandela. The recognition of the historical impact of the immensely influential strategies of non-violent change and civil disobedience will also help to inform and empower individuals who, in turn, may adopt some of the strategies and ideas reflected upon in the above discussion to help bring about social and political change through non-violent means.ConclusionThe examination of three important world-leaders who based their activism in non-violent philosophy reveals certain universal traits among the different incarnations of non-violent activism. Among these universal traits is a belief in the breaking of â€Å" unjust† laws for the purpose of bringing about social and political change. This belief is often, if not always, accompanied by an ambiguous but firmly articulated that such a braking of laws is based in Divine Will. Another core belief seems to be that non-violence rather than violence is, in fact, more in keeping with humanity's organic nature. This idea often results in a corresponding belief that the violence evident in human society is the result of a kind of perversion of humanity's natural attributes into an unnatural and unhealthy state.Against this backdrop, it is very difficult if not impossible to envision the philosophies of non-violent activism as we know them today as anything short of a religious and spiritual philosophy with extremely pragmatic roots in social and political activism. Not only is the spiritual aspect of non-violent philosophy seemingly universal in the three historical figures studied in this short discussion, but the attributes of spirituality embraced by non-violent activists are, in themselves, of great and abiding interest to any observer. A discussion of this aspect alone would probably reveal that the philosophy of non-violence has existed as a spiritual conviction at various times in various cultures throughout the entire history of humanity.Works CitedBarker, Martin and Julian Petley, eds. 2001. Ill Effects: The Media/Violence Debate. New York:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Routledge.Bok, Sissela. 1999. Mayhem Violence as Public Entertainment. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.Gandhi, M. K. Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha). New York: Schocken Books, 1961.Gandhi, Mahatma, and Thomas Merton. Gandhi on Non-Violence. New York: New Directions   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pub, 1965.Kent, Bruce. â€Å"Non-Violence: The History of a Dangerous Idea.† History Today Feb. 2007: 62+.Mandela, Tambo, and the African National Congress The Struggle against Apartheid, 1948-   1990. Ed. Sheridan Johns and R. Hunt Davis. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.Martin, Brian. â€Å"Nonviolent Futures.† Futures 33.7 (2001): 625.Pierce, Victoria. â€Å"A Tribute to Dr. King Civil Rights Leader's Legacy of Non- Violence Is Alive   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   around the World.† Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, IL) 29 Sept. 2006: 1.Wolf, Charles, and Brian Rosen. â€Å"Public Diplomacy: Lessons from King and Mandela.† Policy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Review (2005): 63+.

Education And Teamwork

Is a college degree really necessary, and if so, is it worth the immense amount of debt that so many of us are in? Education importance is a subject that is up for debate, but it can be hard to deny the importance of knowledge in everyday life. One reason why education is important is that, education is about far more than the marks you receive. It's about understanding right from wrong and having the knowledge you need to stay know in today's society.It helps to develop your perspective on the world around you and pushes you to think both creatively and conceptually about many different subjects. Without education, sensory information would simply be lost. Education allows us to process the information we receive on a daily basis and make conclusions and inferences based on what we already know. Another reason why education is important is that, education helps people grow as individuals.It opens your mind to many things that you haven't been exposed to before, and classrooms allow for healthy discussion on difficult subjects. Education helps build social skills, problem solving skills, decision making skills and creative thinking skills. It introduces you to different cultures, religions and thought processes that o may never be exposed to otherwise. Education also provides a stepping stone to the real world, offering many different courses on proper financial techniques, life planning and personal development.TEAM stands for T – Together E – Everyone A – Achieves M – More† Teamwork is very important in everyday life, it teaches us what it is like to work with others, respect, and motivation. In team work you have a greater number of people working together in close proximity on the same goal. The motivation factor is going to be high especially when the team members understand each other, have a sense of healthy competition, are willing to help the others along and are big-hearted enough to take pride in each other's success es.After all, what's the fun in celebrating bayou are going to do it alone? People working in teams tend to learn more by their interactions with each other. Brainstorming sessions can help you view the same problem from different perspectives and arrive at the best possible solution. If you were working alone, it is quite possible that you would have not thought bout the different possible ways through which you could solve the problem.When you have a number of people specialized in different areas working together, it is easy to divide the tasks according the strengths and interests of each person and at the same time, keep everyone happy. If you are able to work in an area which is in task with your likes and interests, you will be able to put in your hundred percent into the job. These two things is very important in our lives and makes us who we are. No matter you like it or not you will always have education and teamwork in your life.

Research perspectives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Research perspectives - Essay Example They have higher and better developed cognitive skills giving them an edge over their younger counterparts. However language learning is one of the very crucial skills where they can be outsmarted by children. The critical learning period hypothesis posits that children learn a second language faster as compared to adults and have the ability to achieve native like expertise. Adults on the other hand are less likely to learn a second language post a certain age and such feat as achieving native-like expertise observed in young children, is almost non-existent or at best a rare phenomenon (Chiswick and Miller, 2008; DeKeyser, 2000). Researchers and language experts have observed that children up to a certain age naturally possess the ability to grasp various languages if they are exposed to it and achieve expertise and fluency in both – their native language as well as the foreign language. This skill or expertise is however highly restricted to a certain period of time known a s a critical period. If this period passes the language learning skills begin to fade and acquiring proficiency or native-like expertise in second language learning becomes a highly challenging task (Reichle, 2010; Rasinger, 2007; Singleton, 1989). However this hypothesis has found several critics who dismiss such claims and debate the relevance of the hypothesis (Nikolov, 2000; Hornberger and Corson, 1997; Ioup et al., 1994; Scovel, 2000). This study aims to assess, explore and analyse the credibility of the ‘critical period hypothesis’ and ascertain the impact, role, and implications of this period in second language acquisition via a comprehensive study of literature available on the subject. 1.1. Thesis statement: Competence in all spheres of human life is usually expected to increase and improve gradually over time and individuals are known to achieve expertise in various skills over the course of their lives. However certain skills such as language learning for in stance, are restricted to a certain critical period whereby it is claimed that L2 proficiency is best achieved before this 'critical period' since unlike other skills it is known to fade over time, thus implying that children are better equipped to achieve L2 proficiency as compared to adults. 1.2. Research objectives: The key objective of this study includes: To examine the relevance of critical period with respect to acquiring language learning skills among children and adults To ascertain whether children have superiority in language learning as compared to adults and whether such ability is dependent on a specific learning period. To examine the various factors such as biological, psychological, environmental, etc and assess its impact on second language acquisition. 1.3. Research problems: Being an English teacher in Saudi Arabia, I have often observed the various learning patterns of learners of English as a second language. Some of the key problems discussed as a part of this study include the following: Is there a substantial difference between adults and children with respect to second language acquisition? In what aspects does the critical period affect second language acquisition among individuals? Is there a common consensus among researchers with regard to relevance and credibility of the critical period hypothesis and its impact on second language acquisition among children and adults? Whether the decline in language learning abilities is the consequence of maturational factors or cognitive factors or any

Industrial Activity and the Environment Article

Industrial Activity and the Environment - Article Example Besides some economic benefits, industrial revolution produced much environmental impacts in a shorter period of time. However, it will be impossible to close all the industries to cut down the pollution. There is a need to find some ways to enable economic growth as well as reducing the environmental pollution. The article that I have selected is â€Å"Industrial Activity and the Environment in China: An Industry-Level Analysis† written by Matthew A. Cole, Robert J.R. Elliott and Shanshan Wu. The article discusses the economic aspects with respect to the environmental perspective. However, China is considered as the reference country to depict the industrial growth and the concentration of different harmful pollutants to the atmosphere. As China has the world’s biggest population, the number of industries in China is increasing day by day and with the increase China has become the biggest producer of carbon dioxide. It is estimated that with this massive amount of air pollution about 300, 0000 people die annually. There is a need to consider the environmental health with the economic growth. Despite the fact that the China has the world’s biggest population, the average air pollution decreased due to the certain efforts of China’s environmental regulatory authorities. Results show that the average atmospheric SO2 levels decreased around 1997 to 2002, while, a little increase was seen in 2000. However, an increase in the average atmospheric SO2 is seen around 2002 to 2004. Similarly the average level of soot emission also decreased around 1997 to 2002 and a minor increase was seen around 2002 to 2004. The similar case is with the dust emissions from industries. These are the three major components of air pollution. The decrease in these three components consequently lowered the pollution intensity, which was at the recorded level in 1998 and now it is on the lowest level. The major producers of the pollutants are the China’s m anufacturing industries like the steel/iron industries in China. Thus the industries are considered as the dirtiest industries among all other. Besides the Steel and iron manufacturing industries, chemical industries, Non-Metallic Mineral producers and Paper and Products industries are also considered as the industries that are producing risk for the environment. It can be noticed that Iron and steel industry, which is considered as the dirtiest industry, is growing with a rapid pace. However, the intensity of the SO2 emission decreased, the similar case is seen with dust and soot emissions. There are several determinants of industrial pollution in China, the first and the most important is the Pollution demand that may involve the energy use, factor intensities, size, efficiency, vintage and innovation. As the demand for energy is rising day by day there is need to generate more energy and generation more energy may involve the utilization of more fossil fuel resources and thus emi tting more pollutants into the atmosphere. Factor intensities of an industry may influence the emissions of more pollutants into the atmosphere. Factor may involve the material and human factors. Size of industry may have some relation with the production of the pollutants. As, more productions may give rise to more pollution emitted into the atmosphere. The other important factor that may have inverse proportion with the amount of pollution is the efficiency of the industry. More efficiency means more products utilizing less amount of energy. Newer

How Poverty Causes Crimes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

How Poverty Causes Crimes - Essay Example Both theories are of great significance for designing social strategies and policies to combat crime. According to the research conducted by the United States Government Accountability Office (2007), individuals living in poverty face an increased risk of adverse outcomes such as poor health and criminal activity. American healthcare system itself can be a factor that makes people vulnerable to poverty. Among the industrial nations, U.S. is the only country that does not have a universal healthcare policy for its citizens. Although American healthcare service is believed to be the best, the dramatic increase in cost, high drug prices, fraudulent activities, healthcare abuse, and unfair coalitions have left the system extremely fragmented. For the majority of the population hospital bills have become unaffordable. According to Marilyn Elias (2009), for some families, just one added stressor is enough to push them over the edge into violence. Although hospitals are highly equipped with the advanced technology and modern facilities, majority of people do not have the access to adequate healthcare service due the escalating cost of drugs and services. To illustrate, the study proves that "as many as 195,000 people may well be dying in American hospitals each year because of avoidable medical errors, and as many as 1.5 million may well be misdiagnosed" (Coates 61-62). The recent economic recession has made the situation more complex. It has contributed to more frequent violence, more violent abuse, and more deadly abuse when the domestic violence already exists. For instance, there has recently been a 25 percent increase in felony-level domestic violence crimes in Rhode Island, and a three-fold increase in domestic violence related homicides in Massachusetts during the same period (Lauby and Else, 2008). Another argument suggests that crime is being promoted by certain social

Old Elevators Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Old Elevators - Research Proposal Example s old elevators; this proposal is made taking into consideration the potential financial support of the state – especially if eco-friendly technology will be used (see the example of the ECO-Space EB technology supported by KONE, 2010). In the Canada’s economic Action Plan published recently by the government (see the website of the Department of Finance but also the Canada News Centre – government of Canada – where a similar initiative is promoted) it is made clear that a significant amount of money will be invested on the modernization and the update of the federal infrastructure – the University could be included in the specific program. It is proposed that the new elevators are of eco-friendly technology in order to guarantee the financial support of the state in their replacement; at the next level, a detailed project of the tasks required for the completion of this project will be submitted so that all funds necessary will be easily estimated in advance. Through this study the following benefits are expected to result: a) modernization of the University’s infrastructure without having to cover all expenses – since the state is expected to support the project, b) implementation of technology that is more friendly to the environment – this initiative could also urge other institutions and organizations across the country to proceed to a similar project. In order to complete this study, the following questions need to be answered: a) which will be the most appropriate technology for the specific organizational sector, i.e. which elevators would be appropriate for the specific environment – the needs of the University but also the market trends would be taking into consideration for replying to this question, b) which is the average cost of the new elevators – a market research should be developed for replying to this question, c) which would be the financial support of the state – i.e. would the state cover the whole cost or just part of

Arabic Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Arabic Culture - Essay Example This paper is a discussion comparing the influence Arab and American TV programming have on shaping cultural practices of these two groups. One of the main issues which TV in programs, in Arab world, focuses on is the conservative dressing code, while in America, is dressing fashionably. Women who feature on TV in the Arab world in most cases put on veils, which cover their whole body and some parts of the head. The women in Arab world in turn, are influenced to continue on with the conventional mode of dressing. Contrary to the Arab world, women who feature in TV programs, in America, embrace the culture of dressing according to the current fashion. This translates on to the society in that women copy the latest mode of dressing they watched on TV. TV programs have great influence on fashion cultural trend while in Arab world TV programs does not influence fashion because of its conservative nature (Monaco 15). The other issue that can be compared in TV in the Arab world and America is the portrayal of freedom. It is evident that a lot of TV programs in America portray satire, irony, and at the same time, the themes are against government policies. People watching TV in America enjoy the sense of mental and intellectual freedom; this is because they are able to watch many programs that are the critic of the government without being victimized by the government. Watching programs that are satirical to the government in America have made people mentally free, and that is why there is democracy in America. However, people watching TV programs in most countries of the Arab world are not mentally free due to governments’ control most of the content to be watched. Satirical programs, which can instill mental freedom to individuals and address the ill nature of the governments, are limited to the Arab world. This fact has seen to it that people living in the Arab are under the

International trade Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International trade - Research Paper Example However like every theory this connection between trade and economic growth and between trade and poverty might be empirically verified. If such a relation holds true then it will automatically provide a ground for the stagnant economies and the developing nations to remove trade barriers and introduce incentives to facilitate the same. Even the developed countries pursue protectionist policies on products related to agriculture, textiles and steel, which are, imported from the less developed nations. Initially the international organizations were pressuring the developing nations to liberalize their economies on the basis of structural adjustment loans. Currently their policies are changing as their attention shifts more towards the developed nations with respect to the removal of trade barriers in nations like Canada, EU and Japan. (Spanu, May 2003, p.1) The basis of all these lie in the theory of trade as an engine of growth and as a step towards reduction of poverty. Most of the literatures studied are in the context of developing or emerging economies. It will be interesting to study the impact of trade in the context of a developed nation like USA, which has recently undergone a vulnerable state of its economy. Hence it is important to empirically verify this theory through the study. Next the theory of trade as an engine of growth might be considered at the background of our research as already mentioned before. According to Adam Smith, David Ricardo and their followers, the secret of England’s wealth lay in trade related activities carried out by the ancient sailors. Without the occurrence of trade, the economy would have remained a closed one with poor living standards, which could gradually lead to the downfall of the economy. According to Smith, â€Å"trade extended the size of the market, promoted specialization and generated prosperity through its gains.† (Mehmet, 44) In

Individual report on a given case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Individual report on a given case study - Essay Example Disneyland mainly targeted the children because it could help the company to increase the footfalls. Children are not allowed to go by themselves by their guardians hence, the company received more visitors and the business had a profound effect in the company’s profit. The primary objective of Disneyland Paris was to attract the citizens of Europe to the large amusement park without facing any political disturbances (McCrie, 2011, p.7). The Disneyland Paris incorporated some changes in their theme park in order to attract the local visitors. The theme park consisted of the American cartoon characters along with a flavour of the French culture. Restaurants and snack bars had seating arrangements because the French preferred to sit and relax while dining. The Disneyland Paris also aimed at reducing long queues by providing diversion for people; for example, additional studios and theatres near the rides. Since Disneyland concept in Europe was new and it was an American theme pa rk, the company decided to hire most of the French as staffs. The quality of service was improved on a high scale and the visitors were taken care by the staffs with high level of courtesy. The operations management of Disneyland played a crucial role for the benefit of the company. The management department enhanced the quality of service and the restaurants. The staffs were taught to be very polite to the visitors because it was the only key to attract more customers and increase the revenue of the company. Since Disneyland Paris was a mega project established in Europe, special approaches were required to be taken in order to develop a positive reputation in the market. The staffs and the management of Disneyland Paris were able to create a courtesies environment in the work culture. The rides and the characters of Disneyland also played important role to gain the attention of visitors (Murthy, 2009, p.92). Overall the standard operating procedure of Disneyland was based on

Airport Master Plans Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Airport Master Plans - Research Paper Example 4 billion by 2030 and there is required more runway space to cater to this large number of passenger growth on annual basis. The cargo will increase by 4.8 percent annually whereas, the cargo operations will increase by slightly less momentum than the cargo. The master plan caters to all these issues in a direct and comprehensive manner. The current master plan has catered to all the airport facilities, tenants, airlines, off-airport or transit plan, process to involve public, retail enhancement plan, environmental plan and financial plan for all the facilities at the airport. The new plan has expanded the Terminal 2 West and provided space for 10 jets, constructed new apron, taxilane, second level curb, parking structure, vehicle circulation, new access road, hangars and apron based on 12.4 acres of land. It will reconstruct the taxiway C, demolish the standing facilities at the airport and relocate the SAN Park Pacific Highway (‘Master Plan’,

Accounting for Small Business Essay Example for Free

Accounting for Small Business Essay ABSTRACT SMEs play a very important role in Indias economy and have a great potential for strengthening the real sector in India. But there has not been appropriate infrastructure yet which is accounting system to show the business feasibility. Traditional business in Indian Villages had been started by a family and ancestors, but has gotten bigger now. This business has many strengths and weaknesses. Based on the condition and background, the proposed-accounting system has been developed. It has been also successfully tested for a month transaction and revised. Adding knowledge management into accounting system is an alternative way to develop the proposed-accounting system. The four modes of knowledge creation will facilitate the business and its owner to add some modules in accounting system and to reengineer the business process. See more: Distinguish between problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping Essay INTRODUCTION: Small business plays a very important role in Indias economy, particularly in aspects increased employment, income generating, economic development. In addition, this sector is considered as a driving force for the rural economy. But until now there are still many problems to hinder the small business growth. Facts in the Asia Pacific region revealed that Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) employ about 60 percent of the workforce. Only 10 percent of the total companies in Asia Pacific which is a big business, the rest are SMEs. For India, according to Small Medium Business Corner (SMBC) data in 2012 the numbers of micro, small and medium enterprises develop into 130 Lakhs (http://www.smeindia.net/export_schemes/OverviewofMSME.html) by giving employment to 410 Lakhs people and able to contribute to the total national GDP amounted to 8-9 percent in 2012. Basic problem of management in small business is inability of owners to determine their management style that appropriate with the business need and development stage. In early stage of business, family management style leads to one-man show. According to improvement of business environment, that conventional style could not be pushed longer. Especially in financial management, the business owners could not be able to separate the financial management of business and family yet. Besides, they have not well planned, managed and reported periodically yet. It is caused by there is no appropriate infrastructure which is accounting system. The impact is that the owners of small business have difficulties to cooperate with external such as bank or another financial institution. The owners have difficulties to show their feasibility business when they want to propose credit or make a business contract with another business. Based on the importance of an accounting system, this research results a proposed-accounting system which can be applied by owners of small business in India. The proposed-accounting system is a generic model of purchasing and selling system that should be enhanced according to business need and by refer to the knowledge management approach. LITERATURE REVIEW: ACCOUNTING SYSTEM: According to Gillespie, accounting system is an organization of document, form and report which is managed to provide information for management. Based on that definition, elements of accounting system are documents, forms and reports, but still concern with procedure and internal control. Therefore, proposed-elements in this study will refer to it. SMALL BUSINESS: Under the law of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (2008), definition of SMEs in India is explained by the table below. Based on the definition, the research object is categorized as a small business. DEFINITION OF SMES IN INDIA Enterprises engaged in providing or rendering of services (i) A micro enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in equipment does not exceed Rs. 10 lakh; (ii) A small enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in equipment is more than Rs.10 lakh but does not exceed Rs. 2 crore; and (iii) A medium enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in equipment is more than Rs. 2 crore but does not exceed Rs. 5 crore. Enterprises engaged in the manufacture or production, processing or preservation of goods (i) A micro enterprise is an enterprise where investment in plant and machinery does not exceed Rs. 25 lakh; (ii) A small enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in plant and machinery is more than Rs. 25 lakh but does not exceed Rs. 5 crore; and (iii) A medium enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in plant and machinery is more than Rs.5 crore but does not exceed Rs.10 crore. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT: System development in this study will follow the three main steps a.System analysis: Activities in this stage are initial study, feasibility study, requirement definition, and specification system arrangement. b.System design:   After finishing system analysis, the next activities are system design, system building and system testing. c.System implementation:   Based on system testing, a revised system will be established. Finally, system is implemented and operated. At this stage, company will conduct maintenance activity. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Since this study wants to develop a proposed-accounting system, â€Å"Research and development† approach which is applied in this study is a research program that is followed by a development program. It is a combination of descriptive study that describes the actual phenomenon in an object and exploratory research that develops a proposed -accounting system. A proposed-accounting system is focused on purchasing and selling system since those are the main activities in the business. The location of this study, Traditional small business in Indian Villages, was chosen on purpose, because this business in the Villages has significantly improved in sales and human empowering, also government is paying attention by giving assistantship for both management and technology. Primary data of this study was the results of guided interviews and observation. The steps of this study are designed as follow: a.Initial study Preliminary research was conducted to comprehend previous studies and literature, guided questionnaire drafting, and Traditional business understanding. b.System requirement defining At this stage, the data was obtained by interview with business owners and observation directly to the business. By understanding the research object condition and background, also the strength and weakness, the accounting system requirement could be defined. c.Development of proposed-accounting system At this stage, development of proposed-accounting system was managed by interviews, observation, and group discussion among owners, researcher and government, related to main accounting system elements, which are document, form and report. In its development, knowledge management approach was proposed to use since it can facilitate business daily operation into business standard operation. The result of this stage was a proposed-accounting system. d.Testing and implementation Testing was accomplished by implementing the proposed system to handle a month transactions. Owners and their staff used it to run transactions of purchasing and selling for a month. By running the system, problems were found and then they were used to revise the system. At this stage, a revised-accounting system was established. e.Conclusions and recommendations In the final stage of this study, conclusions and suggestions from all research processes were stated. RESULT AND DISCUSSION: PROFILE OF TRADITIONAL BUSINESS IN INDIAN VILLAGES: India is one of the major exporter and supplier of handicrafts and gift products to the world market. The Indian handicrafts industry is highly labor intensive and decentralized, being spread all across the country in rural and urban areas. The sector is considered as the second largest employment-generating sector after agriculture with numerous artisans engaged in craft work on a part-time basis. The industry offers employment to over 6 million artisans, including a large number of women and people from the weaker sections of society. The present day handicraft tradition of India is a perfect example of assimilation between the traditional designs and modern techniques. The fast growing demand for Indian handicraft and gifts products have made this sector a full-fledged large scale organized industry that is growing day by day. History The rich history of India’s craft tradition has evolved over the centuries offering a legacy of Indian culture promising everything beauty, dignity, form and style. The variety is comprehensive and ranges from age-old stone carvings to modern handicrafts making use of glass flints and mirrors. The most popular crafts, include metalware, earthenware, pottery, sculpting, woodwork, hand-printed textiles and scarves, embroidered and crocheted goods, shawls, zari products, stone carving and imitation jewelry. There is a myriad of art and craft traditions in India that depend on social, economic and regional factors. The present status of the sector in India owes much to the rich crafts history and tradition of the past. Majority of the crafts from the past continues to flourish due to their utilitarian characteristics, availability to the common people and popularity in domestic and global markets. Today, some of the sectors within the craft industry have even become full fledged industries in their own, like carpet weaving, traditional textile (Banarsi silk sari, Chikankari etc), gem cutting and polishing, jewelry making, the world famous diamond cutting and polishing industry, brassware, jute products, etc. The growth of these industries is due to their ever-increasing demand and the popularity of Indian crafts in the domestic market and overseas. Gems and jewelry, carpet making, metalware, leather products, jute products etc. are some industries, which are growing rapidly.

Office Management Essay Example for Free

Office Management Essay In the present, technology has already advanced so much that it has affected in significant level almost all of aspect of life of the society. Humanity’s lifestyles, works and basic responsibilities are now made easier and as efficient as possible including the field of professional dentistry. In this aspect, integration of the modern technology to the systematic processes in the office dentistry has optimized its production and improved the quality of its services in a significant level raising the standards in this field higher. Application of technology in the office dentistry has been determined to affect several tasks and processes in the said field in a positive manner. One is that it helps to promote the diagnostic communication between the practitioner and the patient through the advancements such as digital imagery and X-rays. With the aid of technology, dentist can now elaborate the situation of their patient through visual tools. Another is that technology widens the available services of each dentist practitioner by innovating several machines that are capable of the complicated tasks in the dentistry field. Also, technological application is known also to reduce the tiresome works in the dentist office such as the accounting responsibility with the aid of programs and softwares that can efficient handle the said tasks. In addition, the tasks of practice management is also optimized by technology as it promotes several aspects such as the communication between concerned parties, organization of paper works and files, and aid the plan of the financial matters of the office. Indeed, technology can significant boosts the service quality and efficiency of the dentistry office. Also, it can reduce the stress and tiresome tasks that the practitioner must handle allocating more time for the professional to invest in his or her field of expertise. However, in the course of integrating technological advancement in the office management and process, involved individual must plan two important aspects to maximize the effectivity of the said approach. First is that the financial investment must be thoroughly planned for the complete application. Second, the future budget allocation must also be considered for the upgrades and updates of the technology integrated in the dentistry office. With these factors completely addressed, the office can now integrate modern technology to its system to optimized their service quality for their patients.

Ignorance of Physical Health in Mental Health

Ignorance of Physical Health in Mental Health Bakhtawar Mushtaq According to the World health organization (2007) â€Å"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being , not merely the absence of disease and infirmity†. From this definition we surmise three main aspects and they always stroll side by side. This definition has both psychiatric and medicine field which insist us for holistic care. If one of the aspect will be ignored then it will difficult to achieve the complete state of well being. The health care professional should take care of physical problems while treating their mental health (Sturgeon, 2007). Mental health set ups are not only to treat the mental disorders, but the physical health issues too. On the other hand, â€Å" the physical health of patients with mental illness is neglected which leads to high premature mortality rates† (brown, 2012). Writing on this topic will help in understanding the importance of holistic care in mental health care setting. Neglecting physical health is a serious issue. Health care providers can prevent thousands of premature deaths by simple interventions, like the care of minor physical instabilities. With the socio-cultural context, stigma and stereotyping are the major barrier of physical health in mental health. In our culture, people easily stigmatize the patient without thinking the consequences. â€Å"Unluckily stigmatizing attitudes toward mental illnesses are present within the mental health professions themselves. The staff usually stigmatizes the patients and treats them unfairly. Instead of paying attention they just ignore the symptoms reported by the patients and label them as symptoms of mental health. Such symptoms may further worsen the condition†. (Cooper 2010) Thornicroft 2011 conducted a study which shows that only 13% mentally ill patients are getting the proper physical health treatments, 48% are getting poorer attention, the rest 30% are not getting any physical attention and 80% population is dying because of this issue which is the main factor of increasing mortality rate. Two main reasons are unnatural deaths and poorer physical health care. However, It shows the high mortality rate in mentally ill patients due to ignorance of physical health. It is very important to address this issue and take important steps to improve their health. During my mental health clinical, I found the enormous ignorance of physical health. A 25 years old female was facing extreme stomachache and she was complaining continuously. On the first day, Everybody was ignoring the patient by saying she is depressed rather listen her complain. Staff even didn’t perform any assessment or notice the facial expressions of the patient. On the second day when I went to the patient she reported her complain and I shared her concern to the doctor she said that just ignore these patients otherwise they will start complaining all the time. On the third day when I attend the clinical, staff told me that patient was very sick at night so she is admitted in hospital for physical checkup. Contemplating the scenario its perturbing that staff is ignoring thos e mentally ill patients who are very vulnerable to other threatening problems and other unexpected outcomes. â€Å"Mentally ill patients are more prone to physical illness than the general population because of many reasons such as lack of exercise, high rates of smoking and poorer diet all contributes to diseases like hypertension, high cholesterol and respiratory illness etc† (Chacà ³n, 2011). Some researchers show a strong genetic relationship between some psychological and physiological illness such as the people with diabetes have the tendency to get schizophrenia. Patient with mental illness can’t pay attention to their physical health so it is our responsibility to take care of their health. Further, somatic pain is also a reason, referring to the scenario my patient had pain, but nobody was listening to her concern because they were assuming that she have somatic delusions. These perceptions lead to serious illnesses in mentally ill patients. Thornicroft (2011) states that â€Å"there are many barriers which contribute to physical illness. He gives the concept of â⠂¬Å"diagnostic overshadowing† that people with mental illness receive worse treatment for physical disorders†. If a patient is admitted in emergency with co-morbid of mental illness and diabetes, staff will less likely to concentrate on diabetes. Furthermore, workload and shortage of trained staff are the contributing factors. Else, negligence in daily assessment is a major issue. Referring to my scenario, the patient was showing facial expressions but they didn’t notice it. Brown (2012) says that â€Å"health disparities experienced by these people is due to problems in accessing health assessment or lack of resources like equipment to assess the physical symptoms†. They should have access to all the facilities such as BP apparatus, to check their BP like in other diseases. Moreover, these patients are unable to explore their symptoms because of altered thought process and the side effects of antipsychotic drugs. These factors lead to serious physical prob lems in those mentally ill patients. According to Maslow’s Hierarchy, physical needs and health are the most important to be fulfilled. He says that physiological needs are deficiency needs, meaning that these needs are important in order to avoid unpleasant consequences like pain . So, from this model we can infer that physical health and needs are important in order to maintain a healthy life. Now, it’s our responsibility to aware the client about reducing the cause of physical illness. Moreover, to fulfill these responsibilities we should plan some strategies. At the individual level, we can only achieve the improvement, when the health care providers are trained in the skills like therapeutic communication, proper physical assessment, and other psychomotor skills. Staff should be sincere with their patients and have a keen eye on their patient’s assessment. (Brown, 2012) states that â€Å" mental health nurses and clinicians play an active role in health promotion, primary prevention and the early detection of physical health problems†. At the community level, management of health care organization should arrange trainings for providing the latest and reliable information that will help staff to give holistic care, to refresh their knowledge with new researches and the ongoing evaluation and analysis of training sessions. Thus the improvement in all these aspects will help caregivers to provide holistic care to mentally ill patients and complete state of wellbeing. Furthermore, at this level we can give knowledge to the families that their consciousness will be helpful for the patient and their early detection. At the international level, we need a multidimensional strategy to reduce disparities in the physical health of mentally ill patients (Tsay, 2007). Integration of mental and physical health is very important, like in my scenario patient was getting only medical attention and the staff was ignoring her verbal pain and facial expressions. These organizations which are handling mentally ill patients should take care of physical health to provide them holistic care and enough resources for the health care professionals to manage their health with all the three aspects. In conclusion, the physical health of mentally ill patients should be part of the field of action of psychiatric practitioners. Health consists of physical, mental, and social aspects consideration of all three aspects are very essential; a change in one aspect will lead to distortion of health. There for it is the duty of health care providers and organizations to prevent illness and restore health by screening, diagnosis and treat physical illness of mentally ill patients. Here my suggestion is that as a health care professional, we have to consider all three aspects of health and provide holistic care to the patients to achieve a complete state of health. REFERENCES Thornicroft, G. (2011). physical health disparities and mental. The British Journal of Psychiatry Retrieved from http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/199/6/441.full.pdf Buhagiar, K. (2011). physical health behaviors and health locus of control in people with schizophrenia-spectrum disorder and bipolar disorder: a cross-sectional comparative study with people with nonpsychotic mental illness. BMC Psychiatry Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/2628t51807u8p131/fulltext.pdf Tsay, J. (2007). disparities in appendicitis rupture rate among mentally ill patients. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/a6v7309617l52m76/fulltext.pdf Chacà ³n, F. (2011).Efficacy of lifestyle interventions in physical. Annals of General Psychiatry Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/d4ku137132654624/fulltext.pdf Brown, B. (2012). improving the physical health of people with severe mental illness . No mental health without physical health Retrieved from http://docs.health.vic.gov.au/docs/doc/20C06D82E2C17401CA2578B700253D49/$FILE/improving-the-physical-health-of-people-with-severe-mental-illness-no-mental-health-without-physical-health.pdf Cherry, K(nd). Hierarchy of needs. The Five Levels of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/hierarchyneeds.htm Sturgeon, S. (2007).Promoting mental health as an essential aspect of health promotion.Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://heapro.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/suppl_1/36.abstrac (1948). Who definition of health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/about/definition/en/print.html Meldrum, D. (2011). the physical health of people living . Retrieved from http://www.mifa.org.au/sites/www.mifa.org.au/files/documents/Physical health Lit review FINAL June 2012.pdf (2012). Physical health conditions among. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k12/NSDUH103/SR103AdultsAMI2012.pdf

Lord of the Flies :: essays papers

Lord of the Flies Artificial Restraints in Lord of the Flies "GOLDING PUTS SO MANY ARTIFICIAL RESTRAINTS ON HIS STORY IN ORDER TO EMPHASISE HIS POINT, THAT THE WHOLE THING COMES OUT TOO NEATLY AND, IN FACT, REDUCES THE POWER OF HIS MESSAGE." I think that, while the boys experience immense bad luck due to the author, the story still proves its point. It is still possible though, that the bad luck of the boys could have been experienced in real life. I think that without this bad luck, the point of the story wouldn’t be as great, because without the restraint’s Golding placed on the boys, life on the island would have been too easy for the boys. The major constraint that Golding puts on the boys is the personality clash between Jack and Ralph. From the beginning, when Ralph is elected leader, Jack hates Ralph, and towards the end of the book, the feeling becomes mutual. Without Jack and Ralph’s problems, life would have been easy, and the ‘darkness of man’s heart’ would not have been conveyed to the reader. Jack shows ‘the darkness’ and if he and Ralph had just been friends, there would never have been an opportunity for Jack to show this darkness which lurked beneath the surface. Golding also uses the dead pilot conveniently against the boys - the way in which he is caught in the trees just in the right position to be caught by the wind and look like the beast and the way the wind picks up after Simon has let him down from the trees and carries him out to sea, so that the other boys cannot see that it wasn’t a beast. The author uses the boy’s fear against them, and although this could possibly happen in the situation, Golding uses it as a weapon against them, their morale and their companionship. I think that the boys split up and go to Jack because of the fear - he can kill the beast, he can get them meat, and if they ever get upset, he can start a dance and all will be fine.

The Work of Cot and Renoir :: essays research papers

The nineteenth century produced a great number of art works from such artists as Pierre August Cot and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. Two major themes in these works include images fabricated from the real world and mirror images of everyday situations in life. Cot produced a pair of star struck lovers sharing a moment together in a hidden dugout enclosed by trees and shrubs while Renior recreated a midsummer’s day with a family enjoying an outing downtown. Each of these painting possesses an iconography in which the artist has contrived within his mind as the main theme to his work. This image is not intended to influence the viewer’s individual observation, but to embellish the work’s particular symbolism. Cot was a wonderfully gifted painter who applied remarkable use of proportional status when creating a two-dimensional painting. The only disadvantage about Cot is that his name is not well known. When this occurs, an artist and his work lack the media voice it needs to posses in order to advance among the inflections of those who do the observing. Therefore personal information is difficult to come across. His work can be classified under representational art. This form of art uses natural images that look very much like images in the natural world. His portfolio of artwork has not received the noteworthy recognition it so deserves. The Storm, created in 1880, is his only painting to have received praise from the world of art. To showcase another masterpiece completed by Cot, I chose to compare and contrast the composition of Le Printemps . This was also created in the same era and was influenced by images fabricated from the real world. The composition of this painting is quite complete; it includes actual lines, organic shapes, and the illusion of light.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Le Printemps grants the subconscious mind to drift into a fantasy-like state and the illusion of mortality merges with the illusion of realism. Cot portrays the young couple on a swing as his major element. The entire picture is based upon this element and with actual lines, the ropes of the swing and the immediate surrounding environment are defined as background major elements. Two large ropes are attached to a small wooden plank, containing the man and woman. Indentations can be seen where the man is holding on and the illusion of movement is understood. For the environmental elements, the large tree symbolizes the relationship it has with the swing as well as the direction in which the couple is swaying.

Transportations Impact on Our World Essay -- Exploratory Essays Resea

Transportation's Impact on Our World Methods of transportation have always occupied a certain niche in society. Beyond their obvious practical use, transports from horses to speed boats to sports cars embody the romance and intrigue of travel. However, beyond the obvious effect low fuel-efficiency standards have had on pollution in the United States and elsewhere, the environmental impacts of transportation are rarely taken into account. Advances in transportation have had two main effects on the environment. Technological advances in transportation are some of the direct reasons behind particulate emissions, global warming and other pollution problems of the industrial age. In addition, transportation has neutralized barriers to diffusion across the world, ensuring the spread of innovation, technology and disease around the world. As transportation has become more mechanized, and as we have increased our use of fossil fuels to support that mechanization, its effects on the environment have become clear. As Al Gore clearly stated, he believes that the internal combustion engine was the worst invention humans ever made. From an environmental standpoint, he has something of a point, albeit a rather misguided one. As of yet advances of transportation have had the side effect of large amounts of pollution. I say side effects not to degrade the seriousness of the pollution that we spew out daily, but simply because I doubt very seriously whether engineers planned or were in any way aware of the possible implications their inventions would have. However that does not mitigate the damage their creations have caused. Shipbuilding in the middle ages led to the deforestation of massive amounts of Europe, Britain, and parts of the U... ...uest to South America. His advantage in ships shaped the future of Latin America. Global transportation opens the door to more than technology. The diffusion of disease has also depended on the advantages transportation provides. As Europeans expanded beyond their cold dreary continent, they unfortunately brought their disease with them. Smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, and the bubonic plague were all introduced from Europe to the Americas, leading to massive deaths in the native population. Even today, as the threat of Sars (severe acute respiratory syndrome) spreads rapidly from Hong Kong, it is clear that transportation has more effects beyond merely moving from place to place. Considering the effects it has had in the past and continues to have today, its importance and the emphasis we place on its efficiency and pollution can have global consequences.

Maneka gandhi Essay

The main issues before the court in this case were as follows; -whether right to go abroad is a part of right to personal liberty nder Article 21 . Whether the Passport Act prescribes a ‘procedure’ as required by Article 21 before depriving a person from the right guaranteed under the said Article. -Whether section 10(3) (c) of the Passport Act is violative of Article 14, 19(1) (a) and 21 of the constitution. -Whether the impugned order of the regional passport officer is in contravention of the principles of natural Justice. The Supreme Court in this case reiterated the proposition that the fundamental rights under the constitution of India are not mutually exclusive but are interrelated. According to Justice K. lyer, ‘a fundamental right is not an island in itself. The expression â€Å"personal liberty’ in Article 21 was interpreted broadly to engulf a variety of rights within itself. The court further observed that the fundamental rights should be interpreted in such a manner so as to expand its reach and ambit rather than to concentrate its meaning and content by Judicial construction. Article 21 provides that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except in accordance with procedure established by law but that does not mean that a mere semblance of procedure rovided by law will satisfy the Article , the procedure should be Just , fair and reasonable. The principles of natural Justice are implicit in Article 21 and hence the statutory law must not condemn anyone unheard. A reasonable opportunity of defense or hearing should be given to the person before affecting him, and in the absence of which the law will be an arbitrary one. One of the significant interpretation in this case is the discovery of inter connections between Article 14, 19 and 21 . Thus a law which prescribes a procedure for depriving a person of â€Å"personal as o ul II t t tl the requirements otA 14 and 19 also. Moreover the ‘procedure established by law’ as required under Article 21 must satisfy the test of reasonableness in order to conform with Article 14. Justice Krishna lyer in this case observed that, â€Å"the spirit of man is at the root of Article 21†, â€Å"personal liberty makes for the worth of the human person† and â€Å"travel makes liberty worthwhile†. The court finally held that the right to travel and go outside the country is included in the right to personal liberty guaranteed under Article 21 . Section 10(3) (c) of the Passport Act is not violative of Article 21 as it is implied in the provision that the principles of natural justice would be applicable in the exercise of the power of impounding a passport . The defect of the order was removed and the order was passed in accordance with procedure established by law. The hon’ble Supreme Court in this case laid down a number of other propositions which made the right to life’ or ‘personal liberty more meaningful. Maneka Gandhi case has a great significance in the development of Constitutional law of India.

From Dull to Brilliant: The Aesthetics of Spiritual Power of the Yolngu Essay

In the taste From Dull to Brilliant The esthetics of unearthly Power of the Yolngu, the rootage, Howard Murphy had discussed to the highest degree the craftistic creation of the Yolngu mint. Yolngu are indigenous people that inhabit the northern p trick of Australia. On first run across on the Yolngu artistic production, we whitethorn find it strange and weird to the art that we used to. But after construe Howard Murphys credit lines about aesthethics, we whitethorn just gestate to change our assent about the Yonglu art and art in general. Howard Murphy had argued that the aesthetic effect of art differs for varying horticultures (Murphy 302). To put it in uncomplicated terms he just core that what may be beautiful to you may not even be agreeable to me. The author even introduced this argument with utter that aesthetics itself has no universally veritable definition (Murphy 302). The author said himself that this argument croupe be translated to the clich beau ty is in the eye of the beholder and in the loose in which the object is seen.The author right away notified his readers that the trajectory of the essay willing be far from traditional art essays. He treasured the essay to only point on the Yolngu art. He said that we should go through Yolngu art as Yolngu art, not groundworkvass to European art. This is just logical as we enduret really equate things that are rattling opposite. This poses a problem if anyone is to view art objectively.The author wanted to utilize models that western art is well-kn cause(prenominal) with. He wanted to incorporate the possibility of response and typical art survey techniques but that seemed problematic. Those concepts correspond to the idea that of we are to view art, we are supposed to get hold something. The dilemma arises as it bug outs that the Yolngu people dupet have art critiques or aestheticians, even the concept of those practices founding fathert exist in the Yolngu cul ture. To resolve that problem, the author explained that the Yolngu also have a measuring rod in which they can measure the achievement of an art. The Yolngu are concerned with the effects of the art to the sense. In that sense, on that point is a likeness by which the Yolngu and Europeans view art (Murphy 303).To co-occurrence his arguments, the author went on with the discussion of the Yolngu movies and the concept of Biryun. He has strewn all around the essay Yolngu talking to like mardayin and minytji. These words dont even have result equivalents in the English language. The exclusivity of the meaning of those words only backup mans the authors arguments of aesthetic-cultural relativism. That scarce means that there exist concepts that cant be translated cross-culturally. And one of these untranslatable concepts is aesthetics.There are just things that cant be translated for cross-cultural understanding. More over, no theory is ever able to richly explain why art is of course universal. The author has included images of Yolngu picture shows in the essay. And I should say that these videos were really amazing. I telephone the author may have over complicated his argument that aesthetics cant be translated cross-culturally. With one look of the Yolngu paintings, one just knows that these are the liberal of paintings that big-time collectors will kill apiece former(a) for.One of the paintings is entitled Yangarinny Gumana, or the Long-necked freshwater Water Turtle. The painting is a example of a current of seawater carrying detritus of wood and logs along the river. Like to the highest degree cultures do, the painting tells its viewers about the culture of those who have painted it (Murphy 305). Another Yolngu painting that is simply adorable is the Djapu Clan chisel Painting. The paintings serve functions for rituals and telling myths.A very important element of the essay to support the authors argument is the Biryun. Biryun is a Yolng u word that pertains to the generalized spiritual force out that Yolngu paintings can potentially posses (Murphy 310). The concept of whiz is very important in Yolngu art. They ascertain the quality of brilliance with ancestral top executive and with beauty.In more specific painting terms, biryun is the flash of light together with the champ of light that the viewers of the painting contract when they are viewing the painting. The paintings are essentially brilliant as in lit as it reflects light. Biryun is achieved by Yolngu painters by victimization marwat (a brush made from human hair). The marwat is thinly applied across the surface of the painting to produce the fine cross-hatched lines. This gives the painting a visual effect that makes the painting appear as if it is shimmering (Murphy 311).As a conclusion, the art of the Yolngu people is certainly very different to European art. But that doesnt needs mean that cultures cant at last understand each other. That is wh y we have art. Art can serve as a bridge for cultures to understand each other. As the author had pointed out in his conclusion, the effect of the biryun operates cross-culturally. It just tells us that everyone may not understand an art through another culture as fully as it can understand those through by ones own culture.That may be the case, but inactive we unexplainably appreciate all forms of art disregarding of the culture it originated from. I guess that there is really no need for a modified form of aesthetic relativism as cultures were already doing that unknowingly. Although though that, interpretations will evermore be certainly varied. But I guess that is arts nature. Those interpretations should be left to the preference of the audience. There should be no unified interpretation whatsoever. That will only make art boring. cultivate CitedMurphy, Howard. From Dull to Brilliant The Aesthetics of Spiritual Power of the Yolngu.The Anthropology of Art A Reader. Blackwell Publishing. 2006.